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Bipedal Body
JULY 2006
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In Learn More the National Geographic magazine team shares some of its best sources and other information to expand your knowledge of our featured subjects. Special thanks to the Research Division.
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 Did You Know?
A common ailment stemming from bipedalism is flatfoot, also known as fallen arches or pes planus. It occurs when the lengthwise arch of the foot has not developed properly, causing the entire sole of the foot to come in contact with the ground. When feet lack the arches that help support the body's weight, it causes structural changes that lead to a whole list of other problems, such as knee, leg, shoulder, and neck pain. Hyper-pronation of the feet is also associated with flatfoot and occurs when the ankle bones lean inward. This can be identified when the worn shoes of an individual slant toward each other when placed side-by-side.
All babies are born with flat feet; their arches don't fully develop until they are a few years older. However, 15 to 20 percent of people never develop normal arches. In this case, the condition is usually inherited, but flatfoot that occurs suddenly in adulthood is often caused by injury or disease.
There are two types of flatfoot: flexible and rigid. In the first, the arch returns when standing on one's toes and is typically painless and symptom-free, requiring no treatment. If bothersome, arch supports, arch taping, or orthotics can be helpful. Some running shoes are designed for people with feet that over-pronate.
Rigid flatfoot is usually painful, and the arch is never present, whether the foot is on the ground or elevated. There are different types of surgery for this condition, including a relatively new surgery called the sinus tarsi implant procedure, which involves inserting a titanium implant into the foot to restore the arch. It's a five-minute outpatient procedure that requires the individual to be on crutches or use a cane for about two weeks.
Short-term problem solvers for both kinds of flatfoot include calf and foot stretches and exercises, as well as toe curls (picking up marbles, coins or a towel with the toes). Other recommendations: lose weight, stop wearing worn-out shoes, stay away from high-impact sports, and avoid exercising on hard surfaces.
—Emily MacDowell
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Bibliography
Jurmain, Robert, and others. Introduction to Physical Anthropology, 10th edition. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Klein, Richard G. The Human Career, University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Langdon, John H. The Human Strategy: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Anatomy. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Stanford, Craig. Upright: The Evolutionary Key to Becoming Human. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003.
Stringer, Chris, and Peter Andrews. The Complete World of Human Evolution. Thames and Hudson, 2005.
Walker, Alan, and Pat Shipman. The Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. Vintage Books, 1996.
White, Tim D., and Pieter A. Folkens. The Human Bone Manual. Elsevier Academic Press, 2005.
Zimmer, Carl. Smithsonian Intimate Guide to Human Origins. Smithsonian Books, 2005.
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NGS Resources
Fischman, Josh. "Family Ties: Dmanisi Find." National Geographic (April 2005), 16-27.
Morwood, Mike. "The People Time Forgot: Flores Find." National Geographic (April 2005), 2-15.
Quammen, David. "Was Darwin Wrong?" National Geographic (November 2004), 2-35.
Gore, Rick. "Georgian Skull." National Geographic (August 2002).
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: Who Were the First Americans?" National Geographic (December 2000), 40-67.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: People Like Us." National Geographic (July 2000), 90-117.
Keyser, Andre. "The Dawn of Humans: New Finds in South Africa." National Geographic (May 2000), 76-83.
Berger, Lee R. In the Footsteps of Eve: The Mystery of Human Origins. National Geographic Books, 2000.
Berger, Lee. "The Dawn of Humans: Redrawing Our Family Tree." National Geographic (August 1998), 90-9.
Gore, Rick. "The Most Ancient Americans." National Geographic (October 1997), 92-9.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: Tracking the First of Our Kind." National Geographic (September 1997), 92-9.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: The First Europeans." National Geographic (July 1997), 96-113.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: Expanding Worlds." National Geographic (May 1997), 84-109.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: The First Steps." National Geographic (February 1997), 72-99.
Johanson, Donald C. "The Dawn of Humans: Face-to-Face with Lucy's Family." National Geographic (March 1996), 96-117.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans: Neanderthals." National Geographic (January 1996), 2-35.
Leakey, Meave. "The Dawn of Humans: The Farthest Horizon." National Geographic (September 1995), 38-51.
Weaver, Kenneth. "The Search for Our Ancestors: Stones, Bones, and Early Man." National Geographic (November 1985), 560-623.
Green, Michael. "Adventure in Indonesia." National Geographic World (January 1984), 3-9.
Morton, W. Brown. "Indonesia Rescues Ancient Borobudur." National Geographic (January 1983), 126-42.
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